Hello, I am a Florida International University student in Miami Dade County and a strong advocate for the use of rewilding as a means to combat the effects humans have had on our environment. Florida, by and large, is a broken ecosystem plagued with hundreds of invasive species that have only gotten a foothold here because many of our native species have been or are close to being exterminated. Florida not so long ago hosted a multitude of large animals, including Horses, Llama-like animals, Tapirs, Wolves, Jaguars, and many more, but due to human hunting and habitat destruction, they are all gone. The only remaining native large animals are the American Alligator, Florida Panther, American Black Bear, White-Tailed Deer, and a small population of introduced Plains Bison, making a total of five, three of which have extremely small populations within the state. In addition, Florida used to host a much more varied ecosystem, including grasslands that are currently rare at best. Grasslands are maintained by the animals that graze on them, and once they disappear, so do the grasslands. Grasslands are more efficient than forests at trapping and absorbing greenhouse gasses from the atmosphere, preventing soil erosion, and decreasing flooding, which is extremely important. I believe that the introduction of these once-lost species that inhabited Florida through the use of rewilding will help to lessen the effects of global warming, human-caused environmental destruction, combat the invasive species plaguing our environment, and increase native biodiversity. For a more in-depth analysis on this topic, please read below:

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Ecological Benefits to the Reintroduction of Locally and Globally Extinct Species:

For thousands of years, human interaction with the natural environment has deteriorated a significant percentage of ecosystems found throughout our planet. Thousands of species of animals, large and small, have been eradicated by our selfish conquest of the world, creating a massive imbalance in the natural processes that keep our planet in equilibrium. Due to this, many foreign governments are pushing projects to help reverse what our ancestors once did. In Europe, there are massive reintroduction efforts to repopulate the land with many animals that were eradicated from their lands hundreds or even thousands of years prior. In Russian Siberia, a project is being undertaken to transform forests into productive grasslands and reintroduce large mammals to help prevent permafrost melt and increase natural fertility. In South America, many countries are creating breeding programs to help reintroduction efforts of their extirpated large mammals. These efforts have yielded incredibly positive results and, with time, can begin to heal the scars our ancestors inflicted on those areas. Australia, North America, and South America are undoubtedly the continents that have been affected the most by human intervention in the past 50,000 years. Both the Americas and Australia have lost over 70 species of large animals, each of which has left their niches in the environment vacant, helping to deteriorate the environments they once inhabited. This paper intends to focus on a specific region of North America that used to be highly diverse in fauna but has lost almost all of its large native inhabitants and discuss viable solutions to combat this problem.

Through the southeast United States, but more specifically Florida, you can find large animals such as black bears (Ursus americanus), Cougars (Puma concolor), White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and now a small, reintroduced population of American Plains Bison (Bison Bison), but these few large animals are all that remains of a once highly diverse ecosystem. Due to the lack of diversity found within the state, there are hundreds of now open niches that are being filled and exploited by invasive species that are driving out the native wildlife and harming the ecosystems they are placed within. Reintroducing the species that once called Florida its home could help mitigate this problem as well as boost natural diversity and land productivity. With this in mind, many of the animals that have gone extinct in Florida may be impossible to bring back because they are completely extinct worldwide or have no living closely related relatives; however, some species were lucky enough to have populations outside of Florida survive to this day.

Animals That are Extinct in Florida but are Found Elsewhere:

Plains Bison (Bison bison): The American Plains Bison already has a small population in Pines Prairie Preserve State Park but was more abundant throughout Florida in the past. They are a keystone species and help maintain grasslands by keeping trees at bay. They also fertilize and aerate the soils they graze on, helping to boost plant diversity and plant growth. In addition to this, Bison assist the dispersal of seeds from many native low-lying plants due to their feeding preferences.

Grey Wolf (Canis lupus): Grey wolves are vital for preventing overgrazing from herbivores. They do this by creating a predator-prey dynamic in which herbivores must constantly move from location to location or risk becoming prey. They also provide food for scavengers and take over a niche that does not compete with the other large carnivores in the state. The native subspecies of grey wolf that inhabited Florida until 1908 has gone completely extinct due to human hunting and competition for resources.

Jaguar (Panthera onca): Jaguars used to be a keystone species in Florida a few thousand years ago but were eradicated from our state by the time Europeans made it to the new world. They were the most abundant large felid in Florida and were the primary hunter of big game. They help the environment the same way wolves do; however, they are more generalized hunters and are known to eat large reptiles such as giant snakes, which are currently plaguing Florida's ecosystems. Since Jaguars are large cats and apex predators, they pose a threat to livestock but are not known to attack humans unless provoked.

Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis): Ocelots are medium-sized cats that play an essential role in rodent control in their native ecosystems. They are still found in minimal quantities in southern Texas and Arizona, but they used to live throughout the entire southern United States. They are essential in keeping rodent populations low, and they help increase the rate of forest regeneration by consuming small seed-eating animals. They also help keep smaller cat populations down, such as feral cats that are a significant threat to Florida's wildlife and become prey to larger carnivores such as the Florida Panther. They are also known to hunt nine-banded Armadillos, which are a very widespread invasive species in the United States. They were extirpated from Florida thousands of years ago.

Margay (Leopardus wiedii): The margay is a small cat species that inhabited Florida four thousand years ago. They are very agile predators and hunt small to medium-sized reptiles, birds, rodents, and amphibians. They are excellent climbers, which allow them to lessen the impact of invasive arboreal species in Florida, such as Cuban tree frogs, green iguanas, Tegu lizards, black and brown rats, and invasive bird species. They were widespread through the southern United States but were extirpated from Florida by humans relatively recently.

Other animals such as Southern Bog Lemmings (Synaptomis cooperi) might also be possible candidates for reintroduction, do to evidence suggesting their range extending to Florida pre human colonization. The causes for their disappearance from Florida is unknown, however due to their small size it is unlikely for humans to be the culprit. Their disappearance is likely due to climate change. Further research will have to be done to determine the viability for Southern Bog Lemmings as possible candidates for this project.

Extinct Animals that Cannot Be Found Anywhere Else and How we can Replace Them:

Camelids:

The Large Headed Llama (Hemiauchenia minima): The Large-headed Llama was a large Camelid weighing 200-400 Kg or 440-881 lbs and obtained shoulder heights of close to 6 ft. They went extinct when early humans arrived in North America a few thousand years ago. They were large grazers and most likely lived like the modern-day guanaco or vicuna (the wild relatives of the llama and alpacas). They would be both grazers and browsers, eating tree foliage that is inaccessible to smaller animals as well as bushes and low-lying plants The varied diet of these animals helps to turn more plant material into fertilizer, helping boost plant diversity. They would also expose more light to the forest floor, giving smaller plants more space to grow, and will trample and eat tree saplings which help to maintain grassland environments. Their closest relatives are the South American camelids, such as alpacas and llamas. It may be possible to breed llamas to have the desired traits shown in the large-headed llama, such as the larger body size and different facial features.

The Stout Legged Llama (Palaeolama mirifica): The stout legged llama was a large camelid, that weighed between 200-300 Kg or 440-660 lbs and went extinct when early humans arrived in North America. They were specialized forest browsers eating mostly tree foliage and fruits. This allows small plants on the forest floor to get enough sunlight to grow as well as fertilize the grounds where they browse. They also transport seeds from fruit-bearing plants to other locations, helping to spread seeds around their range. Like the large-headed llama, it could be possible to breed llamas to have the desired traits that are shown in the stout-legged llama, such as the larger body size, different facial and different anatomical features such as stockier legs.

Peccaries:

Platygonus (Platygonus compressus): Platygonus was a large peccary that grew to a shoulder height of about 2.5 feet. They looked very similar to the Chacoan but were able to obtain greater sizes. Since the charcoal peccary is an endangered species, the only peccary species that can be used to try to breed back Platygonus would be the Collared Peccary which is listed as least concern. Peccaries are herbivorous and eat whatever they can find underground using their extremely sensitive snouts. This, in turn, clears out areas of thick brush and helps aerate the soil. By moving around the soil, they improve soil health and allow seeds to be buried into the ground. They were also most likely herding animals and a major prey source for large carnivores. They went extinct at around the same time that humans arrived in North America.

The Long-Headed Peccary (Mylohus floridanus): The Long-Headed Peccary was a large peccary that went extinct a few thousand years ago. They were larger than modern peccaries and grew to weights of around 68kg or 150 lbs. Like Platygonus and peccaries in general, The Long-Headed Peccary was herbivorous and ate whatever they could find underground using their extremely sensitive snouts. This, in turn, clears out areas of thick brush and helps aerate the soil. By moving around the soil, they improve soil health and allow seeds to be buried into the ground. They were also most likely herding animals and a major prey source for large carnivores. To be able to bring back the Long-Headed Peccary, we would have to use Collard Peccaries and selectively breed for traits that are similar to the Long-Headed Peccary.

Pronghorn:

The Dwarf Pronghorn (Capromeryx): The dwarf Pronghorn was one of the smallest artiodactyls ever known, reaching a height of only 2 ft tall at the shoulder and weighing 11kg or 25lbs. They went extinct when humans entered North America. They were grazers and lived in open grasslands much like the modern pronghorn. They would have also acted very much like pronghorns and were possibly an important prey item for carnivores, big and small. They would help fertilize grasslands and keep trees from growing by eating young saplings. Pronghorns could be selectively bred to be smaller in size and have the features associated with the Dwarf Pronghorn.

Horses:

North American Horses (Equus): North American Horses are an extremely controversial topic regarding what species are valid; some researchers claim dozens of species existed. Others claim only one existed, but what I can say is horses were an integral part of Florida's ecosystems. They are grazers and an important prey species for large carnivores. They help fertilize the grounds they forage on and trample small plants, which provide space for more plants to grow. I do not know what species are valid, but depending on the species in question, we would be able to selectively breed horses to be similar in appearance, anatomy, and characteristics. As of the moment, there are possibly four horse species that would have inhabited Florida at the time of human colonization (Equus conversidens), (Equus fraternus), (Equus giganteus), and (Haringtonhippus francisci), but this is subject to change.

Tapirs:

Vero Tapir (Tapirus veroensis): This animal would be a stretch to bring back since tapirs are all endangered except for the South American Tapir, which is listed as Vulnerable. However, we could have a breeding population of the Baird's tapir, which is the closest living tapir species to the Vero Tapir, increasing the numbers of this species and using it as a substitute. Tapirs are semi-aquatic large herbivores and browse on low-lying tree foliage, fruits, and grasses near bodies of water. They help fertilize the areas where they browse and allow more light to pass through to the forest floor.

Rodents:

North American Capybara (Neochoerus aesopai): The North American Capybara was extremely similar to the modern-day capybara but was slightly larger. They went extinct when humans arrived in the Americas. They would have occupied the same niche that modern-day capybaras have in the ecosystems they are present. They are semi-aquatic and would have been primarily grazing on grasses keeping grass levels low. They could have also been a large prey source for larger carnivores. Modern-day capybaras can be bred to have a slightly larger size as well as having slight anatomical differences to make them more like the North American Capybara.

Florida Porcupine (Erethizon kleini): The Florida Porcupine was an extinct porcupine that lived in Florida roughly 10,000 years ago. It was a medium-sized new world porcupine that was closely related to the modern-day North American porcupine. They were smaller than their modern-day relatives; however, the information I could find was very limited outside of this. Porcupines, in general, are ecosystem engineers, and their foraging habits can change plant densities and forest sizes. They also protect endangered plant species by increasing their opportunities to disperse seeds due to their selective feeding habits. To bring back this species, you can selectively breed the North American porcupine to have the desired traits seen in this species, such as its smaller overall build.

Other possible candidates for reintroduction would be the Florida Grey Fox (Urocyon seminolensis), The Florida Giant Hog Nosed Skunk (Conepatus robustus), The Florida Spectacled bear (Tremarctos floridanus), and the Florida Marsh Deer (Blastocerus extraneus). However, two of these species have complications that may make reintroduction inappropriate. The Florida Gray Fox was identified from very fragmentary remains and may be synonymous with the modern-day grey fox, and the Florida Marsh Deer was named from dubious finds and maybe misidentified white-tailed deer remains. Unless new research proves their validity, the only two likely additional candidates are the Florida Giant Hog Nosed Skunk and the Florida Spectacled Bear.

Almost all other mammal species that recently inhabited Florida would be either too expensive, too time-consuming, or too dangerous to consider bringing back. Animals such as giant ground sloths and giant armadillos would be almost impossible to bring back without the use of genetic reprogramming and artificial birthing techniques. Other animals like Columbian mammoths and the Mastodon would be extremely difficult due to population constraints and the elephant's extremely long gestational period. Large carnivores such as American lions and giant short-faced bears, although possible to bring back, may pose a significant threat to communities around reintroduction locations due to their large sizes and possible aggression towards humans. With that in mind, repopulating Florida with the 14 - 22 species of animals I outlined earlier would help increase biodiversity, increase the health of their ecosystems, and decrease invasive species populations.

Although the breeding portion of this project is advised due to it increasing the likelihood of the success of reintroducing these animals into their new environments, as well as more accurately mirroring the environments that once existed in Florida pre-human colonization, it is not required. The project would still be effective if we use their closest living relatives as substitutes since, in general, their closest living relatives share ecological niches similar to their extinct relatives.

Economic Benefits to the Reintroduction of Locally and Globally Extinct Species:

Disclaimer: I am no economist, nor do I pretend to be one, so my knowledge of this topic is very limited; however, I do believe there is a high possibility that the reintroduction of globally extinct species into protected Florida wilderness can yield many economic benefits. An increase in job availability in fields pertaining to ecological research, animal handling, breeding, paleontology, genetics, and conservation would be expected with a project like this. This increase in job availability would attract skilled workers, helping to increase economic growth and progressing research and innovation in this field. This would also increase the overall population in the areas surrounding the project, which could have positive side effects such as increasing the development of those cities, creating more new jobs, and increasing the GDP of these select cities. 

Another possible economic benefit would be an increase in tourism for these locations. Florida is very reliant on tourism for its total GDP and attracts millions of visitors from across the world every year. Attractions such as theme parks, national parks, and beaches are vital to this business, making them extremely important to the state. With this in mind, the addition of the only natural reserve that has “prehistoric” fauna within its boundaries in the entire world would most likely benefit Florida's tourism business in those areas. It could be used as a safari-like attraction to appeal to tourists who enjoy the natural environment or tourists who like the idea of seeing large recently extinct animals in real life. The increase in tourism would allow for greater allocation of funds to help support future projects as well as pay for the expenses of the breeding and reintroduction of these locally and globally extinct species. 

Ethical Concerns and Project Length:

Many animal rights activists have openly opposed the resurrection of extinct organisms and have cited it to be unethical for humans to "play God" and bring these animals back from extinction. With the methods previously outlined, this should not be a viable counterargument to this project. The selective breeding of desired traits in animals has been a defining feature of human civilization since prehistory. All domesticated animals raised for hunting, work, and food have all been modified to suit what their owners desired over many generations. Most domesticated animal species are so different from their wild counterparts that they are considered different species, so the recreation of extinct species using these traditional methods would not be something out of the ordinary for humans. In addition, many scientists claim that human beings are the leading cause for the extinction of these animals and more than likely would have persisted till this day if it was not for our destructive nature. So, by bringing these animals back, we would not be "playing God"; we would just be recreating the ecosystems that Florida would have had, if it were not for human intervention. With this in mind, breeding methods have progressed a long way since the time of early civilizations. Through the use of modern highly efficient breeding strategies, in only a few generations of animals, we would be able to recreate most of the traits associated with the species we are trying to reproduce.

Another possible ethical concern regarding a project like this would be whether the use of possibly vulnerable or endangered species, such as mountain tapirs and spectacled bears, would create added stress on their native populations, making their species more prone to extinction. Although this concern is well warranted, in theory, the creation of a new population of these animals outside of their home range would allow for a larger population limit, increasing the possible population growth and helping to conserve their species’ longevity.

Certain animals will take longer than others to recreate. Many factors such as the time it takes for animals to reach sexual maturity, how much variability these animals have in their genetic code, and their temperament with humans can all greatly affect the time it takes for breeders to reproduce the desired traits. Animals that are domesticated, such as alpacas, llamas, and horses, all would be relatively easy and fast to breed due to their tameness with humans, high genetic variability, and fast reproduction rate. They are also able to produce offspring within one to three years of birth, allowing us to obtain new generations extremely quickly. Other animals such as capybara, peccaries, and North American porcupines can reproduce quickly and have high genetic variability, but are not domesticated, which can prove to be challenging when handling them; however, there are many tame individuals of each species and two of the three are kept as pets in the exotic pet trade through the United States which shows they can be handled and worked with if necessary. The North American Pronghorn would be the hardest animal to reproduce due to their very skittish nature, aggression towards each other, and low genetic variability. The selective breeding of animals such as this would be possible but extremely difficult.

Positive Benefits of the Reintroduction of Locally and Globally Extinct Species on the Environment:

The reintroduction of locally extinct species and substitutes for extinct species has been an ongoing project in Europe for the past nine years. Roughly twenty European countries have joined the "Rewilding Europe" initiative and have been reintroducing the lost megafaunal species that once resided within their borders. These countries have recorded major increases in the biodiversity of their native plant and animal populations. They have also recorded an increase in soil fertility and decrease in soil erosion, flooding, and air pollution. These benefits would also likely occur in our state if this project were to be a success. It is also likely that invasive species populations would decrease heavily since there are new animals competing for the once vacant niches that they have been exploiting for years. In addition, the reintroduction of large prey species would increase the native Florida Panther population, which in turn decreases the population of invasive species that it hunts as well. Moreover, the reintroduction of the Jaguar, Margay, and Ocelot would also decrease the invasive species population. Animals like the Jaguars hunt reptiles such as large snakes, which have been plaguing Florida's ecosystem for years. Smaller carnivores such as Ocelots and Margays would help keep smaller invasive species, such as tegu lizards, Cuban tree frogs, green iguanas, black and brown rats, invasive bird species, armadillos, and feral cat populations at bay.